The following excerpt about Ephesus is taken from the tourist guide book written by S. Erdemgil, A. Evren, D. Tusun, A. Zulkadiroglu, P Buyukkolanci, M. Buyukkolanci, C. Icten, E. Ucbaylar, U. Yugruk, B. Tuluk, and translated into English by Christine M. Thomas.

EPHESUS, The Best-Preserved Ancient Site In The World!

During its long history, which extends back into the third millennium before Christ, Ephesus, one of the most important centers of antiquity, has always played a significant role in the sciences, in culture and in the arts.

The harbor city Ephesus, which acts as a gateway between east and west, was the point of departure for the famous royal highway that led through Sardis into Lydia. Because of its location, Ephesus developed into an important political and economic center, and became the capital city of the Roman province of Asia.

Its status as an economic metropolis and capital city was not the only reason, however, for the prominent role of Ephesus in the ancient world; the largest temple of the cult of Artemis, which developed out of the traditions of the Anatolian mother goddess Kybele, is also located in Ephesus. This temple numbers among the "seven wonders of the world".

Since Ephesus has changed locations frequently during its long history, its ruins extend over a broad expanse. Until 1990, the oldest finds from Ephesus were some Mycenean graves from the fourteenth century before the common era (BCE); the early settlement belonging to these graves, however, had not yet be en discovered. When excavations undertaken by the Ephesus Museum in 1990 uncovered a prehistoric settlement from the third millennium on the hill of Ayasuluk, our understanding of history of Ephesus changed dramatically.

A second settlement near the ancient harbor, in the eleventh century BCE, followed the older settlement on Ayasuluk; the harbor settlement was situated on the hill of the so-called akropolis. The location of the city changed six times in total. During the archaic period, the inhabitants settled in the area surrounding the Temple of Artemis. In the Hellenistic and Roman period, the city was located between Festival Hill (Panayir Dagi, ancient Mount Pion) and Nightingale Hill (Bulbul Dagi, ancient Mount Koressos); during Byzantine era, it was on Ayasuluk Hill; and during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods, on Ayasuluk and its vicinity.

The remains of the fourth settlement, between Panayirdagi and Bulbuldagi, illustrate the Ephesus of Hellenistic and Roman times. The excavations of recent years have brought to light a geometric settlement in the commercial agora dating to the eight century BCE; but it was only in the third century BCE that settlement in this area first achieved some significance.

During his rule in Ephesus, in 287 BCE, Lysimachos re-founded the city on Panayirdagi and Bulbuldagi. The harbor of the archaic Ephesus near the Temple of Artemis had silted up because of the river Kaystros (Lesser Menderes) and the marshy area that resulted from it. The indefensible position of the older city was a further factor in the relocation.

The city was built onto the slopes of the two hills according to a grid pattern (Hippodamian plan), which was then in fashion. According to this system, all the main streets and side streets run perpendicular to each other along north-south and east-west axes. The city planners, however, could not execute this pattern completely and exactly, since they had to give consideration to the course of the sacred way, which belonged to the Temple of Artemis, and to the various topographical features of the area.

The city of Ephesus in Hellenistic and Roman times seems to be divided into two parts. The area between the two hills forms the center of the city, with government buildings such as the state agora, the odeon, the prytaneion, and the basilica. Kouretes Street runs on to the northwest and connects this district with the marble road, which runs on a north-south axis and borders the commercial agora and the harbor precinct. This second area, the commercial district, contains the Library of Celsus, the theater, and the other buildings of the harbor.

A further street, continuing the marble road from the front of the theater, leads off to the north-east, to the stadium and the Vedius Gymnasium, i.e., to the northeast, part of the city.

During the Roman period, monumental structures lined Kouretes Street, which linked the city center with the commercial center. A few of these are the Nymphaeum of Trajan, the Temple of Hadrian, the Scolastikia Baths, and the terrace houses.

Lysimachos gradually added to the city according to plan of the Hippodamian grid pattern, which was modified to accommodate the sacred way. Among the noteworthy structures of this period are the city walls, the Magnesian Gate, the Hellenistic Theater, the fountain house behind the stage of the theater, and the commercial agora. On the other hand, the graves found during excavations in the state agora are from the sixth to fifth centuries BCE; those discovered near the terrace houses should be dated to the early Hellenistic age, are also from an earlier period.

This rational manner of city planning was retained under the emperor Augustus in the first century CE, in particular after the severe earthquake. The structures that it destroyed received a more Roman character when they were rebuilt. Since Ephesus was the capital of the province of Asia, the buildings were constructed in a correspondingly impressive fashion. A few were altered to accommodate them to Roman customs. The imperial cult resulted in the development of cultic facilities such as the temples of Domitian, Hadrian, the Dea Roma, and Divus Julius Caesar. Good connections with Egypt fostered the construction of the Temple of Isis and Serapis, for the Egyptian divinities.

From the beginning to the present day - THE HISTORY - of Ephesus.

According to linguists, the site named Apassas that appears in Hittite inscriptions was transformed, over time, into the name "Ephesus". In excavations that have now lasted for over a century, however, not the smallest hint has been found that would point to Apassas. In 1989, the archaeologists of the Ephesus Museum focused on the ruins of the earliest settlement at Ephesus; on the south slope of the Seljuk-era fortress, they discovered walls and coarse clay cooking vessels, which, without doubt, come from the third millennium BCE. On this evidence, this settlement developed at the same time as Troy l. When the same type of finds also came to light at Pergamon, on the Degirmen hill between Troy and Ephesus, it was proven that, at this point in western Anatolia, established centers already existed that had a higher level of civilization than in other areas. In northern Ionia, in which Ephesus is located, Mycenean finds were discovered south of Phokaia (Foca), near Menemen. Similar remains will surely be found at Ephesus someday.

According to Herodotos, the ancient historian, the Karians and the Lelegians boasted that they were the first settlers of Anatolia. They must then have also founded Ephesus. But, up to this point, we still know little about the time of the Karians, whose capital city was Halikarnassos, the birthplace of Herodotos.

We know that merchant colonies developed in the tenth century BCE. Traders transported wares from the more sophisticated interior of Anatolia to the colonies in its west, from which, particularly from the harbor cities of Ephesus and Miletos, they were shipped to Greece and lands still farther west. Androklos, the son of the Athenian king Kodros, was one of the founders of Ephesus. According to myth, Kodros was waging war against the neighboring countries. Before he began, a soothsayer had prophesied that whoever was the first to die would win the war. Kodros thus purposely allowed himself to be killed by the enemy. After his death, Androklos feared disagreement with his brothers over succession to the throne, and decided to found a new settlement. He also consulted a seer, who predicted something incomprehensible to him, namely that a fish and a wild boar would lead him to the new city. Androklos sailed with his friends to the civilized coast of western Anatolia. While they were on the shore frying fish that they had caught, the dry grass caught fire. This flushed out a wild boar that tried to flee the danger. Androklos followed it on horseback, and finally managed to kill it. The words of the seer then came to his mind, and he decided to build his new settlement in that place. This was probably on the small hill west of the stadium of Ephesus, the so-called akropolis. A frieze of the so-called Temple of Hadrian on Kouretes Street illustrates this legend.

Pausanias and Strabo, the ancient historians, believed that the Amazons founded Ephesus. According to Strabo, Ephesus and Smyrn (Izmir) are names of Amazons. But why would the Amazons, the well-known female warriors, leave their homeland on the Black Sea in northern Anatolia to settle themselves here? At various times in history, however, the Ephesians honored the Amazons. A frieze in the same temple on Kouretes Street also portrays the Amazons as the founders of Ephesus. When the Ephesians erected the world-famous Temple of Artemis in Ephesus in the fifth century BCE, they announced a contest for the most beautiful statue of an Amazon. Famous masters of sculpture participated in this contest, such as Polykleitos, Pheidias, Kresilas, and Phradmon. Historical sources tell us that the judges of the contest comprised the same masters, and that the statue of Polykleitos earned the prize. The statue was then set up in the Temple of Artemis. No one has yet been able to find this statue, but countless copies of it were produced in the Roman period. These have been found in many other cities that also worship Artemis.

As one of the twelve city-states of Ionia, Ephesus was one of its most important centers. Ionia, which extended from Phokaia (Foca) in the north to Miletos in the south, was prominent in the sciences, culture, and the arts in the sixth century BCE. These cities formed an economic and religious federation. The religious center was in Panionion, near the village of Guzelbahce, south of Kusadasi. Representatives from all the Ionian cities would meet there on certain days of the year to make resolutions about social and religious affairs. Ephesus distinguished itself from all the other Ionian settlements by its wealth. This income came from its commercial harbor. The famous archaeologist Prof. Ekrem Akurgal notes that, in the sixth century BCE, Ionia took over the leading role that Mesopotamia and Egypt had played in civilization since the third millennium BCE. And at the fore of the city-states of Ionia were Miletos and Ephesus. They were able to benefit from all the experience accumulated by the east in the preceding 2500 years, and they thus called a completely new world int o being. Philosophers and scientists had complete freedom of opinion. Thus, from his study of the stars, Thales, son of Hexamyes, could foretell an eclipse of the sun, long before modern methods of reckoning time came into use. This was the first time in history that anyone had predicted a natural event. Already in 576-550 BCE, Anaximander and Anaximines of Miletos were discussing the existence of the atom, in the form of a kernel. At the same time, the scientist Herakleitos of Ephesus was the first to claim that everything in the world was subject to a process of continual change.

In the sixth century, Lydia, with its capital, Sardis, in western Anatolia, was the riches land in the world. Its gold mines brought this wealth. King Kroisos (Croesus), blinded by these riches, conscripted an army of mercenaries, and decided to increase the size of his country by attacking Ephesus. The Ephesians were unprepared for this, since they felt that Artemis was protecting them. They were convinced that the cord they had stretched from the Temple of Artemis to the city would stop the Lydians. The Lydians marched into the city, nevertheless. Kroisos's respect for Artemis, protected the Ephesians, however, for the king treated them kindly. In addition to this, Kroisos assumed the costs of the new Temple of Artemis, which was then under construction, and he donated the beautifully decorated columns. One of these columns carries the name of Kroisos. The British engineer Wood found it in an excavation in 1869 and took it to England, where it is on display in the British Museum. After the attack of Kroisos, tyrants sent by Sardis governed Ephesus. Although the inhabitants remained fairly independent in internal affairs, they still did suffer under the strict rule of the tyrants. The occupying forces later exercised so much pressure on the inhabitants that their reputation as tyrants became known throughout the world.

The empire of the Lydians in western Anatolia did not last long. All of Anatolia was under the threat of the Persians to the east. The historian, Herodotus reports that, in 546 BCE, the Persians conquered all of Ionia under their famous general, Harpages, beginning from Phokaia. While the Persian king Kyros (Cyrus) was attempting to burn the Lydian king Kroisos upon a funeral pyre, Kroisos cried out, "Ah, Solon!" Kyros immediately interrupted the execution, because he wanted to know what Kroisos had meant by calling out this name. Kroisos told him of his encounter with the great Athenian thinker Solon, many years ago. He had shown him all of his riches and his entire treasure house, and then asked him whether there could be any man in the world happier than he. Solon answered that it is impossible to believe oneself to be the happiest man in the world before one's death. These words persuaded the Persian king to grant Kroisos his life. They became friends, and Kroisos acted as his advisor. Under the Persians, the Ephesians received the right to determine their domestic and trade policies for themselves, if they paid tax to the Persians. The Persians formed Karia, Lykia, Pamphylia, and Ionia into a unit, and placed Ionia under the administration of a satrap.

Persian rule in Anatolia lasted until Alexander the Great. This Macedonian king crossed over at the Dardanelles and laid siege to the Persians at Biga in 334 BCE. After this so-called horse war, Alexander marched on to the capital of Sardis, and from there to Ephesus. There, he was welcomed as a god. He went to the Temple of Artemis, which was then under construction, since, on the night of Alexander's birth, a crazy man named Herostratos had set it in flames; Alexander requested of the Ephesians that he might assume the costs of its reconstruction. The Ephesians politely refused this offer, saying that it was not proper to allow the temple of a goddess to be built by a god.

After Alexander's death, Ephesus came under the power of his general, Lysimachos, in 287 BCE. He erected the city walls, which are still in a good state of preservation today, and re-founded the city. Thus, the city changed dramatically. Lysimachos gave the new city the name of his beloved wife, Arsinoe, the daughter of the Egyptian king Ptolemy. This name was only retained until his death, when he was killed on the battlefield, while waging war near Koroupedion against Seleukos. After the battle at Koroupedion, the city came under the rule of the Seleukids, and after the peace of Apamea in 188 BCE, it was transferred to Pergamon. In 133 BCE, Rome inherited the kingdom, and Ephesus became a city of the Roman empire. The emperor Augustus made Ephesus the capital of the province of Asia, by which the city not only gained prestige, but also attained a new prosperity and a close relationship with Rome. In the age of Augustus, Ephesus became the great metropolis of Asia, and had 20,000 inhabitants.

In the year 17 CE, a severe earthquake flattened western Anatolia to the ground. Ephesus also suffered great damage. By order of the emperor Tiberius, the city was rebuilt from the ground up. An inscription on a marble block across from the Temple of Hadrian on Kouretes Street attests this.

After the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, St. Paul came to Ephesus. With the help of Timothy, Christianity was recognized in Ephesus, and a church was founded. Paul assembled the adherents of the new religion in the city center, and in the main theater. Business people such as the silversmith Demetrios, who made his living by producing silver statues of Artemis, observed with increasing concern how quickly this religion spread . They assembled part of the population in the theater and shouted for hours, "Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!" After Paul, John came to the city with the Virgin Mary and continued Paul's work.

John wrote his gospel in Ephesus. According to his wishes, he was buried where the Church of St. John stands today. In the fourth century CE, a basilica was erected over this tomb, and in the sixth century, the Church of St. John that we know today was built on the same site.

In the fourth century CE, three major earthquakes struck Ephesus. Although these earthquakes caused major destruction, the city was quickly rebuilt. About this time, however, the Lesser Menderes River began to silt up the harbor that had brought Ephesus its many riches. Already in the fifth century, the population began to sink drastically. The city shrank together, and the inhabitants constructed an inner city wall. Part of the population resettled on the hill of Ayasuluk. In 431 CE, the third council of the Christian church took place at Ephesus. Great conflicts erupted during the proceedings, which lasted for three months. Another council convened again in 449.

The Arabian attacks from the sea in the seventh and eight centuries weakened Ephesus to such an extent that the entire population retreated to the vicinity of the Church of St. John. The inhabitants strengthened the defenses and built walls around the church, which created a new fortress. In the twelfth century CE, the Turks first entered this area. From this time onward, the city expanded again. When the traveler Ibni Batu visited Ephesus in the fourteenth century, the old name Agios Theologos had already been transformed to Ayasuluk. Ibni Batu found an extensive new city with consulates from Venice to Genoa.